An analysis of the fall of Rome and the rise of a new civilization. Special attention will be given to the development of the Feudal System and the medieval Christian Church as the twin pillars of the new cultural and social order.

An examination of the triumphs and failures of late medieval civilization, including the rise of cities, chivalrous society, the pinnacle and nadir of the Christian Church and the quickening of intellectual life before the onslaught of the Black Death.

An examination of the course and consequences of major revolutions from 1789 through to the 20th century and considers the key social, political, economic, ideological, cultural and international dimensions of these important upheavals. Each revolution (e.g., the French, Russian, Chinese, Cuban) will be considered in its own historical context, but the comparative framework will allow students to examine common elements that shaped the wider world.

An analysis of medieval history from the fall of Rome to 1350.

A study of the general historical development of Western society from antiquity to the present.

This course examines Europe in the period in which it reached the apogee of its prestige and power. It will cover the most controversial issues in the history of both Eastern and Western Europe and a variety of themes, approaches and subjects that will make the history of this critical period comprehensible to the novice student.

European society from the end of the First World War, to the collapse of the Soviet Union. Emphasis on key historiographical debates.

Selected topics in Canadian history since the 16th century including the themes of discovery and settlement, French and English rivalry for North America, the effect of the American Revolution on British North America, the emergence and development of the Canadian nation, and the problems and challenges of a modern nation-state in the 20th century.

Selected topics including witchcraft in Puritan New England, slavery and the Old South, youth culture in the 1920s, the American ascent to world power status and the Vietnam War.

Selected topics on comparative themes in North American history, drawing examples from the Canadian and American experiences from the colonial period to Confederation/the Civil War. Themes include the degree to which the interactions of Europeans and native peoples differed in the French and British colonies; why a revolution happened in the American colonies but not in Canada; and differences in the development of the democratic polity in the 19th century.

Selected topics on comparative themes in North American history, drawing examples from the Canadian and American experiences from Confederation/the Civil War to the present. Such issues in American and Canadian history as the idea of the wild frontier vs. orderly settlement; the mosaic vs. the melting pot and the concept of an "undefended border" may be discussed.

This introduction to world history will begin by exploring conceptions of world history in Western and non-Western cultures. It will study the world order prior to the modern period of Western dominance, and pay particular attention to long-term historical changes in the modern period (1500-2000) which created, sustained and transformed the relationships between cultures and peoples of the world.

A study of the foundations of modern Europe, exploring such topics as the scientific revolution, the rise of democracy, the growth of the absolute state, mercantilism and the Enlightenment. {P}

A study of Europe from the French Revolution to the eve of World War I, a period of revolution in politics, economics, science and the arts. The course will explore the important issues of this formative period. {E}

An examination of Imperial Russian history from Peter the Great to the empire's dramatic collapse. {P}

A study of Soviet Russia from its origins in the 1917 Revolution to its demise in 1991. Special attention will be given to issues of continuity and change in 20th-century Russian history. {E}

A survey of the American experience from its colonial beginnings to the end of the Civil War. The course will concentrate on the initial encounter with the North American environment, the nature of colonial society, the American Revolution, 19th-century westward expansion and the institution of slavery.

A survey of modern American development beginning with the post-Civil War industrial revolution and ending with a consideration of contemporary problems. The course will emphasize economic, social and political issues with special attention paid to the growth of entrepreneurial capitalism, American expansionism and the status of important minority groups.

This course covers German History from the Treaty of Westphalia to the end of the Bismarck era. The emphasis is on the rise of Prussia, the political and social systems of the Empire, German Unification, economic development and foreign policy. {P}

This course covers Wilhelmine Germany (1890-1918), its imperial aspirations, diplomatic manoeuvres and defeat in World War I. It explains the destruction of the Weimar Republic, the Rise of Nazism, the nature of the Third Reich and its defeat in World War II. It examines the developments in the Federal Republic and the Democratic Republic and ends with an analysis of the reunification of Germany. {E}

Change and development in British politics, society and culture from the end of the Middle Ages to 1714. This course will pay particular attention to the Tudor foundation of the sovereign nation state, the English Reformation, the rise of a capitalist economy, the Puritan Revolution of the 17th century, and the establishment of Parliamentary supremacy. {P} {C/S}

Great Britain possessed the world's largest empire, was the site of the world's first industrial revolution, and developed its own form of parliamentary democracy. This course will explore how empire, industry and democracy shaped the British encounter with modernity in the 18th and 19th centuries. {E}

An economic, social and political history of French Canada from the first arrival of French explorers to the present. {C}†

This course studies the political, social and cultural development of early modern France from the French Wars of Religion (1560s-90s) to the final defeat of Napoleon in 1815. {P}

This course studies the political, social and cultural development of modern France from the fall of Napoleon in 1815 to the present day. {E}

(Cross-listed as CL225.)

(Cross-listed as CL226.)

A study of the historical foundations of Modern Japan from the Meiji Restoration to the present with emphasis on political and economic history.

This course is a survey of Asian civilization over the last two centuries. Special attention will be paid to East Asia, South Asia and the Middle East. General themes will include changing traditions, comparative colonialism, nationalism, revolution and independence. {IR/G}

This course is a survey intended to introduce students to the wide sweep of sub-Saharan African history, and to some of the methodological and interpretative problems associated with it. {IR/G}

An investigation of the emergence of colonial societies and identities in New France and British North America. Problems of local development and imperial affairs will be considered, as well as the road to Confederation and the reasons why certain colonies did not join the Canada of 1867. {C}†

A study of the influence of sea power on history with special reference to the North Atlantic nation states. {IR/G}†

A study of the influence of sea power in the modern era with special reference to the two great wars of the 20th century. {IR/G}†

A study of the major elements of Canadian life: social, religious, cultural, racial, political, diplomatic, economic as they have evolved since Confederation. {C}

An investigation of Canadian constitutional development from the age of French absolutism to the present. Main themes include political and constitutional liberty, religious toleration, Canadian self-government, the origins and expansion of the federal idea, the development of Canadian autonomy within the Empire-Commonwealth and the Canada Act 1982. {C}†

A historical study of Canadian external relations from Confederation to present times. {C}†

A history of the strategical, technological and intelligence aspects of World War II. {IR/G}

A history of the Second World War emphasizing global strategy and military operations, 1939-1945. {IR/G}

The course examines the impact of the Second World War away from the front lines of battle by concentrating on the role of civilians in the conflict. An attempt will be made to focus on the most controversial issues in the social, political, economic and diplomatic realms that arose in the decade from 1939 to 1948. {C/S}

This course examines a series of historical films on a selected theme. These films will be placed in their historical context and examined for content, bias and interpretation.

This course is designed to introduce students both to the study of the history of women and to the concept of using gender analysis to understanding historical events and trends. It focuses specifically on the European context (including Britain and Russia) and covers a wide variety of national contexts and many distinct periods from the Enlightenment to the present. {E} {C/S}

A survey of Canadian history from European contact to Confederation. Attention will be given to social developments as well as to economic and political issues. This course is a prerequisite for Canadian history seminars. {C}

A survey of Canadian history from Confederation to the present. Attention will be given to social developments as well as to economic and political issues. This course is a prerequisite for Canadian history seminars. {C}

Selected themes in the history of ideas that have helped to shape the Western world from the Enlightenment to the present, including changing perceptions of nature, society, and the individual in response to scientific, industrial and political revolutions; the development of ideologies such as socialism, idealism and nationalism; cultural movements such as Romanticism; the intellectual and cultural impact of the two World Wars in the 20th century. {E} {C/S}

A study of socialist movements in their historical contexts before World War II. Attention is given to early egalitarian movements and spokespersons, but the course concentrates on those socialist movements associated with the emergence of an industrial proletariat in 19th-century Europe. {E} {C/S}†

A comparative survey of the fascist movements of Europe from the end of the First World War through the Second World War. The course includes discussions of: the origins and nature of fascist thought; the ideologies, policies, organizations and social clienteles of the fascist movements; the behaviour of fascist leaders and parties in power; the Holocaust; and an assessment of the fascist legacy. {E} {C/S}

An examination of the British Empire-Commonwealth. Attention will be given to the growth of empire, the institutional framework, the imperial biographies, and sea power and communications. Attention will also be given to native peoples, colonial economics, decolonization and the history of the Commonwealth ideal. {IR/G}†

Africa has experienced, and continues to suffer, a particularly high incidence of warfare. This course studies war and society in Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries. It examines the reciprocal ways in which the conduct of warfare and the nature of the societies in which it occurs influence and transform each other. {IR/G}

This course explores the intellectual, cultural, socio-economic and political history of Italy during the Renaissance, focusing on the development of renaissance humanism in terms of education and scholarship, politics and statecraft, sex and gender, artists and aesthetics, philosophy and religion. {P} {C/S}

This course investigates the theological, socio-economic and political aspects of the Protestant and Catholic Reformations of the 16th century, beginning with late medieval challenges to the church and the influence of Christian Humanism, and then considering the religious movements inspired by Luther, Zwingli, Calvin, Loyola, and others as they developed in various parts of Europe. {P} {C/S}

A thematic course on 15th- and 16th-century Europe exploring such issues as the emergence of the state and international power politics; the rise of humanism; Renaissance art and thought; the social and political context of the Reformation. {P} {C/S}

A history of Europe since 1945, with the focus on political, economic, social, cultural and international developments. Topics will include the impact of the Second World War, the Cold War, the search for European unity, the collapse of the Soviet Union and its effects, the reunification of Germany, security arrangements, demographic changes, economic development, social policies, and intellectual and cultural trends. {E}†

This course examines selected historical developments in the history of the Baltic states, Poland, Czechoslovakia and the Balkan countries. {E}†

This course will examine the intellectual, social, economic, religious and political forces prompting the exploration of the New World of the Americas. The impact of the encounter between the peoples of the New World and the Europeans will be studied. {P} {IR/G}†

This course will study the political, constitutional, social and economic evolution of England from the Anglo-Saxon invasion to the end of the Plantagenet dynasty with the victory of Henry VII over Richard III at Bosworth Field, which coincided with the beginning of the Renaissance in England. {P} {C/S}†

This course aims to provide students with a deeper understanding of the events of Canada's second half-century, encompassing the years from the Second World War through the beginning of the 21st century. {C}

An examination of the social, cultural and demographic changes affecting Canada's peoples from the l740s to the 1880s. {C} {C/S}

The development of Canadian society in the 20th century. The course examines the changing socio-economic framework within which Canadians have lived, and focuses on specific problem areas such as the immigrant experience, social reform movements, the history of women and the emergence of the welfare state. {C} {C/S}

An examination of the origins, character and consequences of the transformation of British society between 1780 and 1850. The course will pay particular attention to the relationship between industrial change and new patterns of living including new forms of work and leisure, alterations in family structure and sex roles and developments in popular ideology, political protest and reform. {E} {C/S}

This course examines the century of rapid population growth, economic expansion and social change from the accession of Elizabeth I to the restoration of Charles II. The course will focus on the problems created for government by this period of social upheaval. {P} {C/S}

This course will consider the origins and development of racism in the modern metropolitan and colonial cultures of the 18th and 19th centuries. It will study how the two world wars of the 20th century modified racist ideology and practice, and will conclude by examining how global migration, movements for colonial independence and civil rights, and the process of decolonization have shaped the postcolonial present. {C/S}

A study of the evolution of the relationships, roles and occupations of the sexes within the context of the rapidly changing economic, social and political environment of North America from the Industrial Revolution to the present day. Particular attention will be placed on the roles and responsibilities of women within this context. {C/S}

An investigation of social, economic and political changes in Québec during the 20th century. {C}†

The peoples of Asia, Latin America and Africa have developed a shared identity out of a common history of resistance to colonialism. With particular attention to the period 1870-1970, the course explores the creation of a world divided by wealth and power, the rise of colonialism, the process of decolonization in the context of the Cold War, and the ideology and legacy of revolutionary guerrilla warfare. (Cross-listed as GS329*.) {IR/G}

A history of African-Americans from their arrival in Virginia in 1610 to the abolition of slavery in 1865. The course will concentrate on such topics as the slave trade, the origins of racial prejudice, and the development of a distinctive black identity.

A study of black history in the United States from the Civil War to the present. The course will emphasize the importance of Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. DuBois, the northern migration of blacks to industrial cities, and the development of the modern civil rights movement. {C/S}

A history of U.S. foreign relations from the Spanish-American War to the present. {IR/G}

An examination of the impact of organized athletics on modern American society and culture. {C/S}

The course examines the United States in a century of global dominance and domestic turmoil. It covers a period when the United States' economy and culture rose to exert a hegemonic influence internationally and yet when the American people were themselves deeply divided culturally and economically. The course will discuss the rise of mass entertainment (movies, radio and television) and the emergence of a spectator culture. It will deal extensively with American music cultures, film and the visual arts. The discussion of cultural change will be interwoven with a history of American society: the struggle for racial equality, the on-going sexual revolution, the drive to preserve American values, the conflict between the ideals of an open society and the intolerance of the foreign, and the pursuit of authenticity in a mass produced age. {C/S}

An examination of how the United States has shaped the politics, economics, culture and society of selected Latin American countries since 1898. Topics may include neo-colonialism, military intervention, foreign aid, cultural imperialism, missionaries, counter-revolution, mass media, underdevelopment and trade relations. {IR/G}

This course explores major themes in modern Latin American history since the early 1800s. Topics may include early national political struggles, the rise of neocolonialism, indigenous peoples, gender relations, slavery, populism, dependency, underdevelopment, guerrilla warfare, revolution and neoliberalism. {IR/G}

An examination of business activities in Canada since the 15th century: trading in commodities such as fish, fur, lumber, wheat; the contributions of individuals and families; the development of institutions in finance and commerce; the nature and role of state enterprises; the impact of state intervention. {C}†

A study of the development of the trade union movement in Canada and the role of organized labour in politics. {C} {C/S}

A study of Ontario as a colony, province and region. {C}

This course will focus on selected topics in the history of the Canadian West, including both the Prairie West, portions of the North and British Columbia. It will give special emphasis to Aboriginal peoples and colonialism, social, economic and institutional change in the region(s), political movements, ethnicity, gender, work, rural life and class. {C}

A study of selected aspects of Canada's military experience. {C}†

This course studies the major themes in the history of culture and ideas that helped to shape the Western world from the 17th-century Scientific Revolution to Charles Darwin's 19th-century theory of evolution. Topics include changing representations of nature, of society, and of the individual, over time and within changing historical contexts. {E} {C/S}

This course covers the major themes in the history of culture and ideas that helped to shape the Western world, from 19th-century Marxist socialism to the post-1945 postmodernist critique of Western humanism. Topics include changing representations of nature, of society, and of the individual, both over time and within changing historical contexts. {E} {C/S}

The aboriginal peoples of Newfoundland, Labrador, the Maritime colonies, Québec and Ontario, in transition from the 15th century to the present. The principal focus will be on the ethnohistory of these peoples, and their responses to explorers, traders, missionaries, government officials and other aboriginal peoples. {C} {C/S}

The aboriginal peoples of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia, the Northwest Territories and the Yukon, in transition from the 18th century to the present. The principal focus will be on the ethnohistory of these peoples, and their responses to explorers, traders, missionaries, government officials and others. {C} {C/S}

A study of selected historical themes reflecting the research interests of members of the department.

An intensive study of selected topics in modern military history.

This course analyses the rise to worldwide ascendancy of the European International system from the origins of the French Revolution to the fall of Bismarck. It will focus on the rise and fall of the Great Powers and on the systematic evolution of international relations in Europe. {E} {IR/G}

This course analyses the intensifying economic and strategic struggle among the Great Powers, which led to the two World Wars and the Cold War. It will focus on the stages by which the European system became absorbed into a global system, the revolutionary challenges to the status quo and the responses to them. (Cross-listed as GS349.) {E} {IR/G}

An examination of selected aspects of Russian intellectual history in the Imperial and Soviet periods. Topics may include the rise of Populism, Marxist-Leninism-Stalinism and dissent in the post-Stalinist era. {E} {C/S}

An examination of selected aspects of Russian social history in the Imperial and Soviet periods. Topics may include industrialization, collectivization, and the transformation of post-Stalinist society. {E} {C/S}

An examination of social, political and cultural change in France and Europe during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic era. {P} {C/S}

An examination of France in the 1930s and 1940s with an emphasis on the defeat of 1940, the German occupation, and French collaboration and resistance. {E}

An examination of the various relationships between sports and social systems in the 19th and 20th centuries. {IR/G}

A survey of the rise of modern education and training systems in Europe and North America since the Enlightenment, and their export to other parts of the world. Topics will include evolving pedagogical theory and techniques, the growth of state-sponsored education (universities, colleges, institutes and adult education programs), the professionalization of teaching, the role of private and corporate education, and international agencies involved in education.

A study of the First World War examining military leadership, military tactics and strategy, the impact of technology on operations and the impact of the war on soldiers. {IR/G}

This course examines the impact of the First World War away from the lines of battle by concentrating on the roles of civilians in the conflict. An attempt will be made to focus on the most controversial issues in the social, political, economic and diplomatic realms that arise between 1914 and 1919. {C/S}

This course surveys the major issues in Poland's History from the origins of the first Polish State in 966 to its collapse after the third partition in 1796. The course will focus on the political and cultural development of Poles and other national groups (i.e., Germans, Jews, Ruthenians, Lithuanians, Tartars) living within the changing borders of the Polish state and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. {P} {C/S}

This course surveys the major issues in Poland's History from the third partition in 1796 to the present day. This course will focus on the political and cultural development of Poles and other national groups (i.e., Germans, Jews, Ruthenians, Lithuanians, Tartars) living within the borders of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. {E} {C/S}

This course examines Jewish-Gentile relations in Europe from the mid-18th century to 1938. Topics will include Jewish emancipation and acculturation, anti-Jews sentiment and violence, modern racial and national ideologies, Fascist and National Socialist antisemitism, and the dis-emancipation of Jews in Nazi Germany that foreshadows the Holocaust. {E} {C/S}

During the Second World War the Nazis destroyed two-thirds of European Jewry. In surveying the history of this genocide, the course explores Nazi policy toward the Jews in the context of German and European anti-Jewish ideology, modern bureaucratic structures, and the varying conditions of war, occupation and domination in Europe under the Third Reich. {E} {IR/G}

This course is a survey of slavery and slave cultures in the American South, Caribbean and Brazil, from plantation settlement to abolition. Students will briefly explore imperial designs and commercial ambitions that generated the Atlantic slave trade. {IR/G}

This course introduces students to gender analysis and key themes in North American women's history from colonial settlement to the first women's suffrage movement. Students will be introduced to feminist approaches in studying history, with special attention to the distinctiveness of women's experiences and shifting definitions about "women's nature." {C/S}

A critical analysis of history as a discipline including an explanation of the nature and purpose of history. An assessment of historians' methods and explanations, and a study of various philosophies of history. Particular attention will be paid to recent trends in historical methodology. {C/S}

A seminar examining social and intellectual forces from 1400 to 1700. {P}†

A seminar course on the last 150 years of Northeast Asian (the Russian Far East, Northeast China [also known as Manchuria], Korea and Japan) international relations. {IR/G}

Selected aspects of the cultural history of post-1945 western and eastern Europe. Topics are divided into three broad categories: the legacy of World War Two and the Nazi era in post-war cultures; the emergence of new national identities in an era marked both by decolonization and American political hegemony; and the development of protest cultures in the 1960s and beyond. {C/S}†

A seminar course investigating the key problems in international relations from the origins of the First World War to the Suez Crisis. {IR/G}†

This course centres on the problems of Germany in the period between the end of the First World War and the early phases of the Cold War in Europe. It examines the reasons why so many `ordinary' Germans saw the Nazi Party as a `reasonable' political option, how the Nazis fundamentally changed the lives of the German people, and how the defeat of Nazi Germany led to the Allied 'reconstruction' that reshaped "Two Germanies."

Explores selected topics in the history of U.S. foreign relations in the 20th century. Emphasizes historiography, analytical approaches and research skills. {IR/G}

A seminar course directed towards the study of the growth of the Empire, the institutional framework, defence and communications, colonial identity and the commonwealth ideal. {IR/G}†

A seminar course on selected topics on the relationship between Victorian social and scientific thought.†

This seminar will explore how the possession of the world's largest empire shaped the culture of the metropolitan culture of the United Kingdom. Victorian culture and its imperial dimension transformed the identities of race, gender, class and nation. The seminar will introduce students to these issues and to new departures in cultural history. {C/S}

A seminar course on the impact of 20th-century wars on the societies of Canada, the United States and Great Britain. {IR/G}†

A seminar course which analyses many of the debates in international relations pertaining to the origins of specific wars, invasions and conquests between the French Revolution and the present. The course will examine the role of political miscalculation, personalities, diplomacy, economics, military preparation, public opinion and other relevant factors which may cause wars. {IR/G}

This course probes recent reappraisals of the Boer War (South African War) of 1899-1902. Issues include the origins of the war and its consequences, the nature of military operations, the concentration camps, African involvement, the participation of dominion forces (especially Canadian), and international reaction to the conflict. Questions relating to race, gender, identity, image-making and experience during the war are also considered. {IR/G} {C/S}

A seminar course based on a critical analysis of the major books which shape our view of Canadian history. {C}†

Selected topics in the historical representation of Canada, with critical attention to changing traditions, modes, and media of representation, especially visual images, within their historical contexts. {C} {C/S}

Selected topics in the histories of the family and education in Canada and the United States from the mid-19th through the 20th centuries. Emphasis on prevailing ideals about the nature of family and the purposes of schooling, and the practices, policies and institutions devised to uphold those ideals. {C} (C/S}

A research seminar based on important examples of recent interdisciplinary approaches to historical study of the environment. Themes include attitudes to nature and perceptions of the environment, with a view to developing useful applications to related topics in Canadian history. {C}

A seminar course emphasizing the impact of scientific and cultural change on Canadian society in the 19th and 20th centuries. {C}†

This comparative seminar examines the post-contact experience of Native peoples in North America (including "Indians", Metis, Mestizos and Inuit) to better understand historical, Aboriginal identities under colonialism. The course will cover the following selected topics: contact, epidemics, trade and work, social change, encounters with Christianity, violence, the evolution of governmental policies towards First Peoples, pan-Indianism, activism and cultural renaissance, and Native and non-Native interpretations of the past. {C/S}

An introduction to the micro-historical method with consideration of communities and the ways in which historians have dealt with the problems of social, political and economic change on a local level. Research will focus on the Canadian experience.†

A seminar course emphasizing topics selected from the eras of contact, the French and British regimes and Confederation. Themes may include regional, social, economic, political and cultural problems. {C}†

Seminar investigations on topics of historical importance in the recent history of Canada. {C}†

An analysis of the major historiographical trends and debates in English history 1558-1660. {P}†

Studies in the social and cultural history of industrial Britain. The seminars will emphasize the social and cultural impact of industrialization upon Victorian England.†

An examination of post-Civil War economic expansion and the changes it wrought in American society. The course will cover the creation of the United States industrial and transportation networks and the development of large-scale entrepreneurial capitalism. It will also examine Americans' response to these phenomena with particular emphasis on the adjustments they made to traditional, social, political and economic attitudes.†

This seminar course will study European exploration, trade and colonization during the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, and will assess the resultant interaction of African, Amerindian, Asian and European cultures by the examination of selected cases using primary historical sources. {P}†

Seminar investigations of problems in pre- and post-revolutionary Russia.†

A seminar course on selected topics in revolutionary and Napoleonic France. {P}

A seminar course that examines the leading thinkers of the 18th-century Enlightenment and their ideas in the political and social context of their times. {P}

This course will examine Napoleon as man (his life and personality), political dictator and commander of armies. It will study the Napoleonic Wars, but also look beyond them to examine French and European politics, culture, and society during Napoleon's rule as First Consul (1799-1804) and Emperor (1804-1814). {E}

This seminar course is designed to introduce students to research in and the literature about America in the 1930s and 1940s. This was a period of depression and war, a period when the United States passed from economic catastrophe to global mastery, a period in which new economic, social and cultural forces emerged, in which the struggle for civil rights was nurtured and over which the political presence of Franklin Roosevelt towered. In one of the most actively researched periods in US history, topics include Roosevelt's character, the nature of the New Deal, civil rights, American intervention in WWII, the experience of combat.

This seminar begins with an assessment of antebellum politics and society, including the breakdown of national institutions during the 1850s. Abolitionism, the rise of the Republican Party, and westward expansion of slavery will receive careful study. The war itself will be placed within a broad social context, including the impact of conventional and guerrilla warfare on soldiers, civilians, slaves and freed people.

Directed study and research on a topic appropriate to the student's specialization and chosen in consultation with the faculty supervisor.†